jerojasro@393: \chapter{Tras bambalinas}
jerojasro@343: \label{chap:concepts}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@393: A diferencia de varios sistemas de control de revisiones, los
jerojasro@393: conceptos en los que se fundamenta Mercurial son lo suficientemente
jerojasro@393: simples como para entender fácilmente cómo funciona el software. 
jerojasro@393: Saber esto no es necesario, pero considero útil tener un ``modelo
jerojasro@393: mental'' de qué es lo que sucede.
jerojasro@393: 
jerojasro@393: Comprender esto me da la confianza de que Mercurial ha sido
jerojasro@393: cuidadosamente diseñado para ser tanto \emph{seguro} como
jerojasro@393: \emph{eficiente}.  Y tal vez con la misma importancia, si es fácil
jerojasro@393: para mí hacerme a una idea adecuada de qué está haciendo el software
jerojasro@393: cuando llevo a cabo una tarea relacionada con control de revisiones,
jerojasro@393: es menos probable que me sosprenda su comportamiento.
jerojasro@393: 
jerojasro@393: En este capítulo, cubriremos inicialmente los conceptos centrales
jerojasro@393: del diseño de Mercurial, y luego discutiremos algunos detalles
jerojasro@393: interesantes de su implementación.
jerojasro@393: 
jerojasro@393: \section{Registro del historial de Mercurial}
jerojasro@393: 
jerojasro@393: \subsection{Seguir el historial de un único fichero}
jerojasro@393: 
jerojasro@393: Cuando Mercurial sigue las modificaciones a un fichero, guarda el
jerojasro@393: historial de dicho fichero en un objeto de metadatos llamado
jerojasro@395: \emph{filelog}\ndt{Fichero de registro}.  Cada entrada en el fichero
jerojasro@395: de registro contiene suficiente información para reconstruir una
jerojasro@395: revisión del fichero que se está siguiendo. Los ficheros de registro
jerojasro@395: son almacenados como ficheros el el directorio
jerojasro@395: \sdirname{.hg/store/data}. Un fichero de registro contiene dos tipos
jerojasro@395: de información: datos de revisiones, y un índice para ayudar a
jerojasro@395: Mercurial a buscar revisiones eficientemente.
jerojasro@395: 
jerojasro@395: El fichero de registro de un fichero grande, o con un historial muy
jerojasro@395: largo, es guardado como ficheros separados para datos (sufijo
jerojasro@395: ``\texttt{.d}'') y para el índice (sufijo ``\texttt{.i}''). Para
jerojasro@395: ficheros pequeños con un historial pequeño, los datos de revisiones y
jerojasro@395: el índice son combinados en un único fichero ``\texttt{.i}''. La
jerojasro@395: correspondencia entre un fichero en el directorio de trabajo y el
jerojasro@395: fichero de registro que hace seguimiento a su historial en el
jerojasro@395: repositorio se ilustra en la figura~\ref{fig:concepts:filelog}.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \begin{figure}[ht]
jerojasro@343:   \centering
jerojasro@343:   \grafix{filelog}
jerojasro@396:   \caption{Relación entre ficheros en el directorio de trabajo y
jerojasro@396:   ficheros de registro en el repositorio}
jerojasro@343:   \label{fig:concepts:filelog}
jerojasro@343: \end{figure}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@396: \subsection{Administración de ficheros monitoreados}
jerojasro@396: 
jerojasro@396: Mercurial usa una estructura llamada \emph{manifiesto} para
jerojasro@396: % TODO collect together => centralizar
jerojasro@396: centralizar la información que maneja acerca de los ficheros que
jerojasro@396: monitorea. Cada entrada en el manifiesto contiene información acerca
jerojasro@396: de los ficheros involucrados en un único conjunto de cambios. Una
jerojasro@396: entrada registra qué ficheros están presentes en el conjunto de
jerojasro@396: cambios, la revisión de cada fichero, y otros cuantos metadatos del
jerojasro@396: mismo.
jerojasro@396: 
jerojasro@396: \subsection{Registro de información del conjunto de cambios}
jerojasro@396: 
jerojasro@396: La \emph{bitácora de cambios} contiene información acerca de cada
jerojasro@396: conjunto de cambios. Cada revisión indica quién consignó un cambio, el
jerojasro@396: comentario para el conjunto de cambios, otros datos relacionados con
jerojasro@396: el conjunto de cambios, y la revisión del manifiesto a usar.
jerojasro@396: 
jerojasro@396: \subsection{Relaciones entre revisiones}
jerojasro@396: 
jerojasro@396: Dentro de una bitácora de cambios, un manifiesto, o un fichero de
jerojasro@396: registro, cada revisión conserva un apuntador a su padre inmediato
jerojasro@396: (o sus dos padres, si es la revisión de una fusión). Como menciońe
jerojasro@396: anteriormente, también hay relaciones entre revisiones \emph{a través}
jerojasro@396: de estas estructuras, y tienen naturaleza jerárquica.
jerojasro@396: 
jerojasro@396: Por cada conjunto de cambios en un repositorio, hay exactamente una
jerojasro@396: revisión almacenada en la bitácora de cambios. Cada revisión de la
jerojasro@396: bitácora de cambios contiene un apuntador a una única revisión del
jerojasro@396: manifiesto. Una revisión del manifiesto almacena un apuntador a una
jerojasro@396: única revisión de cada fichero de registro al que se le hacía
jerojasro@396: seguimiento cuando fue creado el conjunto de cambios. Estas relaciones
jerojasro@396: se ilustran en la figura~\ref{fig:concepts:metadata}.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \begin{figure}[ht]
jerojasro@343:   \centering
jerojasro@343:   \grafix{metadata}
jerojasro@396:   \caption{Relaciones entre metadatos}
jerojasro@343:   \label{fig:concepts:metadata}
jerojasro@343: \end{figure}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@406: Como lo muestra la figura, \emph{no} hay una relación ``uno a uno''
jerojasro@406: entre las revisiones en el conjunto de cambios, el manifiesto, o el
jerojasro@406: fichero de registro. Si el manifiesto no ha sido modificado de un
jerojasro@406: conjunto de cambios a otro, las entradas en la bitácora de cambios
jerojasro@406: para esos conjuntos de cambios apuntarán a la misma revisión del
jerojasro@406: manifiesto. Si un fichero monitoreado por Mercurial no sufre ningún
jerojasro@406: cambio de un conjunto de cambios a otro, la entrada para dicho fichero
jerojasro@406: en las dos revisiones del manifiesto apuntará a la misma revisión de
jerojasro@406: su fichero de registro.
jerojasro@406: 
jerojasro@406: \section{Almacenamiento seguro y eficiente}
jerojasro@406: 
jerojasro@406: La base común de las bitácoras de cambios, los manifiestos, y los
jerojasro@406: ficheros de registros es provista por una única estructura llamada el
jerojasro@406: \emph{revlog}\ndt{Contracción de \emph{revision log}, registro de
jerojasro@406: revisión.}.
jerojasro@406: 
jerojasro@406: \subsection{Almacenamiento eficiente}
jerojasro@406: 
jerojasro@406: El revlog provee almacenamiento eficiente de revisiones por medio del
jerojasro@406: mecanismo de \emph{deltas}\ndt{Diferencias.}.  En vez de almacenar una
jerojasro@406: copia completa del fichero por cada revisión, almacena los cambios
jerojasro@406: necesarios para transformar una revisión anterior en la nueva
jerojasro@406: revisión. Para muchos tipos de fichero, estos deltas son típicamente
jerojasro@406: de una fracción porcentual del tamaño de una copia completa del
jerojasro@406: fichero.
jerojasro@406: 
jerojasro@406: Algunos sistemas de control de revisiones obsoletos sólo pueden
jerojasro@406: manipular deltas de ficheros de texto plano. Ellos o bien almacenan
jerojasro@406: los ficheros binarios como instantáneas completas, o codificados en
jerojasro@406: alguna representación de texto plano adecuada, y ambas alternativas
jerojasro@406: son enfoques que desperdician bastantes recursos. Mercurial puede
jerojasro@406: manejar deltas de ficheros con contenido binario arbitrario; no
jerojasro@406: necesita tratar el texto plano como un caso especial.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@410: \subsection{Operación segura}
jerojasro@343: \label{sec:concepts:txn}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@410: Mercurial sólo \emph{añade} datos al final de los ficheros de revlog. Nunca
jerojasro@410: modifica ninguna sección de un fichero una vez ha sido escrita. Esto es más
jerojasro@410: robusto y eficiente que otros esquemas que requieren modificar o reescribir
jerojasro@410: datos.
jerojasro@410: 
jerojasro@410: Adicionalmente, Mercurial trata cada escritura como parte de una
jerojasro@410: \emph{transacción}, que puede cubrir varios ficheros. Una transacción es
jerojasro@410: \emph{atómica}: o bien la transacción tiene éxito y entonces todos sus efectos
jerojasro@410: son visibles para todos los lectores, o la operación completa es cancelada.
jerojasro@410: % TODO atomicidad no existe de acuerdo a DRAE, reemplazar
jerojasro@410: Esta garantía de atomicidad implica que, si usted está ejecutando dos copias de
jerojasro@410: Mercurial, donde una de ellas está leyendo datos y la otra los está escribiendo,
jerojasro@410: el lector nunca verá un resultado escrito parcialmente que podría confundirlo.
jerojasro@410: 
jerojasro@410: El hecho de que Mercurial sólo hace adiciones a los ficheros hace más fácil
jerojasro@410: proveer esta garantía transaccional. A medida que sea más fácil hacer
jerojasro@410: operaciones como ésta, más confianza tendrá usted en que sean hechas
jerojasro@410: correctamente.
jerojasro@410: 
jerojasro@410: \subsection{Recuperación rápida de datos}
jerojasro@410: 
jerojasro@410: Mercurial evita ingeniosamente un problema común a todos los sistemas de control
jerojasro@410: de revisiones anteriores> el problema de la
jerojasro@410: \emph{recuperación\ndt{\emph{Retrieval}. Recuperación en el sentido de traer los
jerojasro@410: datos, o reconstruirlos a partir de otros datos, pero no debido a una falla o
jerojasro@410: calamidad, sino a la operación normal del sistema.} ineficiente de datos}.
jerojasro@410: Muchos sistemas de control de revisiones almacenan los contenidos de una
jerojasro@410: revisión como una serie incremental de modificaciones a una ``instantánea''.
jerojasro@410: Para reconstruir una versión cualquiera, primero usted debe leer la instantánea,
jerojasro@410: y luego cada una de las revisiones entre la instantánea y su versión objetivo.
jerojasro@410: Entre más largo sea el historial de un fichero, más revisiones deben ser leídas,
jerojasro@410: y por tanto toma más tiempo reconstruir una versión particular.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \begin{figure}[ht]
jerojasro@343:   \centering
jerojasro@343:   \grafix{snapshot}
jerojasro@410:   \caption{Instantánea de un revlog, con deltas incrementales}
jerojasro@343:   \label{fig:concepts:snapshot}
jerojasro@343: \end{figure}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@410: La innovación que aplica Mercurial a este problema es simple pero efectiva.
jerojasro@410: Una vez la cantidad de información de deltas acumulada desde la última
jerojasro@410: instantánea excede un umbral fijado de antemano, se almacena una nueva
jerojasro@410: instantánea (comprimida, por supuesto), en lugar de otro delta. Esto hace
jerojasro@410: posible reconstruir \emph{cualquier} versión de un fichero rápidamente. Este
jerojasro@410: enfoque funciona tan bien que desde entonces ha sido copiado por otros sistemas
jerojasro@410: de control de revisiones.
jerojasro@410: 
jerojasro@410: La figura~\ref{fig:concepts:snapshot} ilustra la idea. En una entrada en el
jerojasro@410: fichero índice de un revlog, Mercurial almacena el rango de entradas (deltas)
jerojasro@410: del fichero de datos que se deben leer para reconstruir una revisión en
jerojasro@410: particular.
jerojasro@410: 
jerojasro@410: \subsubsection{Nota al margen: la influencia de la compresión de vídeo}
jerojasro@410: 
jerojasro@410: Si le es familiar la compresión de vídeo, o ha mirado alguna vez una emisión de
jerojasro@410: TV a través de cable digital o un servicio de satélite, puede que sepa que la 
jerojasro@410: mayor parte de los esquemas de compresión de vídeo almacenan cada cuadro del
jerojasro@410: mismo como un delta contra el cuadro predecesor. Adicionalmente, estos esquemas
jerojasro@411: usan técnicas de compresión ``con pérdida'' para aumentar la tasa de
jerojasro@410: compresión, por lo que los errores visuales se acumulan a lo largo de una
jerojasro@410: cantidad de deltas inter-cuadros.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@415: Ya que existe la posibilidad de que un flujo de vídeo se ``pierda''
jerojasro@415: ocasionalmente debido a fallas en la señal, y para limitar la acumulación de
jerojasro@415: errores introducida por la compresión con pérdidas, los codificadores de vídeo
jerojasro@415: insertan periódicamente un cuadro completo (también llamado ``cuadro clave'') en
jerojasro@415: el flujo de vídeo; el siguiente delta es generado con respecto a dicho cuadro.
jerojasro@415: Esto quiere decir que si la señal de vídeo se interrumpe, se reanudará una vez
jerojasro@415: se reciba el siguiente cuadro clave. Además, la acumulación de errores de
jerojasro@415: codificación se reinicia con cada cuadro clave.
jerojasro@415: 
jerojasro@415: \subsection{Identificación e integridad fuerte}
jerojasro@415: 
jerojasro@415: Además de la información de deltas e instantáneas, una entrada en un revlog
jerojasro@415: % TODO de pronto aclarar qué diablos es un hash?
jerojasro@415: contiene un hash criptográfico de los datos que representa. Esto hace difícil 
jerojasro@343: cryptographic hash of the data that it represents.  This makes it
jerojasro@343: difficult to forge the contents of a revision, and easy to detect
jerojasro@343: accidental corruption.  
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: Hashes provide more than a mere check against corruption; they are
jerojasro@343: used as the identifiers for revisions.  The changeset identification
jerojasro@343: hashes that you see as an end user are from revisions of the
jerojasro@343: changelog.  Although filelogs and the manifest also use hashes,
jerojasro@343: Mercurial only uses these behind the scenes.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: Mercurial verifies that hashes are correct when it retrieves file
jerojasro@343: revisions and when it pulls changes from another repository.  If it
jerojasro@343: encounters an integrity problem, it will complain and stop whatever
jerojasro@343: it's doing.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: In addition to the effect it has on retrieval efficiency, Mercurial's
jerojasro@343: use of periodic snapshots makes it more robust against partial data
jerojasro@343: corruption.  If a revlog becomes partly corrupted due to a hardware
jerojasro@343: error or system bug, it's often possible to reconstruct some or most
jerojasro@343: revisions from the uncorrupted sections of the revlog, both before and
jerojasro@343: after the corrupted section.  This would not be possible with a
jerojasro@343: delta-only storage model.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \section{Revision history, branching,
jerojasro@343:   and merging}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: Every entry in a Mercurial revlog knows the identity of its immediate
jerojasro@343: ancestor revision, usually referred to as its \emph{parent}.  In fact,
jerojasro@343: a revision contains room for not one parent, but two.  Mercurial uses
jerojasro@343: a special hash, called the ``null ID'', to represent the idea ``there
jerojasro@343: is no parent here''.  This hash is simply a string of zeroes.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: In figure~\ref{fig:concepts:revlog}, you can see an example of the
jerojasro@343: conceptual structure of a revlog.  Filelogs, manifests, and changelogs
jerojasro@343: all have this same structure; they differ only in the kind of data
jerojasro@343: stored in each delta or snapshot.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: The first revision in a revlog (at the bottom of the image) has the
jerojasro@343: null ID in both of its parent slots.  For a ``normal'' revision, its
jerojasro@343: first parent slot contains the ID of its parent revision, and its
jerojasro@343: second contains the null ID, indicating that the revision has only one
jerojasro@343: real parent.  Any two revisions that have the same parent ID are
jerojasro@343: branches.  A revision that represents a merge between branches has two
jerojasro@343: normal revision IDs in its parent slots.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \begin{figure}[ht]
jerojasro@343:   \centering
jerojasro@343:   \grafix{revlog}
jerojasro@343:   \caption{}
jerojasro@343:   \label{fig:concepts:revlog}
jerojasro@343: \end{figure}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \section{The working directory}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: In the working directory, Mercurial stores a snapshot of the files
jerojasro@343: from the repository as of a particular changeset.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: The working directory ``knows'' which changeset it contains.  When you
jerojasro@343: update the working directory to contain a particular changeset,
jerojasro@343: Mercurial looks up the appropriate revision of the manifest to find
jerojasro@343: out which files it was tracking at the time that changeset was
jerojasro@343: committed, and which revision of each file was then current.  It then
jerojasro@343: recreates a copy of each of those files, with the same contents it had
jerojasro@343: when the changeset was committed.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: The \emph{dirstate} contains Mercurial's knowledge of the working
jerojasro@343: directory.  This details which changeset the working directory is
jerojasro@343: updated to, and all of the files that Mercurial is tracking in the
jerojasro@343: working directory.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: Just as a revision of a revlog has room for two parents, so that it
jerojasro@343: can represent either a normal revision (with one parent) or a merge of
jerojasro@343: two earlier revisions, the dirstate has slots for two parents.  When
jerojasro@343: you use the \hgcmd{update} command, the changeset that you update to
jerojasro@343: is stored in the ``first parent'' slot, and the null ID in the second.
jerojasro@343: When you \hgcmd{merge} with another changeset, the first parent
jerojasro@343: remains unchanged, and the second parent is filled in with the
jerojasro@343: changeset you're merging with.  The \hgcmd{parents} command tells you
jerojasro@343: what the parents of the dirstate are.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \subsection{What happens when you commit}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: The dirstate stores parent information for more than just book-keeping
jerojasro@343: purposes.  Mercurial uses the parents of the dirstate as \emph{the
jerojasro@343:   parents of a new changeset} when you perform a commit.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \begin{figure}[ht]
jerojasro@343:   \centering
jerojasro@343:   \grafix{wdir}
jerojasro@343:   \caption{The working directory can have two parents}
jerojasro@343:   \label{fig:concepts:wdir}
jerojasro@343: \end{figure}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: Figure~\ref{fig:concepts:wdir} shows the normal state of the working
jerojasro@343: directory, where it has a single changeset as parent.  That changeset
jerojasro@343: is the \emph{tip}, the newest changeset in the repository that has no
jerojasro@343: children.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \begin{figure}[ht]
jerojasro@343:   \centering
jerojasro@343:   \grafix{wdir-after-commit}
jerojasro@343:   \caption{The working directory gains new parents after a commit}
jerojasro@343:   \label{fig:concepts:wdir-after-commit}
jerojasro@343: \end{figure}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: It's useful to think of the working directory as ``the changeset I'm
jerojasro@343: about to commit''.  Any files that you tell Mercurial that you've
jerojasro@343: added, removed, renamed, or copied will be reflected in that
jerojasro@343: changeset, as will modifications to any files that Mercurial is
jerojasro@343: already tracking; the new changeset will have the parents of the
jerojasro@343: working directory as its parents.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: After a commit, Mercurial will update the parents of the working
jerojasro@343: directory, so that the first parent is the ID of the new changeset,
jerojasro@343: and the second is the null ID.  This is shown in
jerojasro@343: figure~\ref{fig:concepts:wdir-after-commit}.  Mercurial doesn't touch
jerojasro@343: any of the files in the working directory when you commit; it just
jerojasro@343: modifies the dirstate to note its new parents.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \subsection{Creating a new head}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: It's perfectly normal to update the working directory to a changeset
jerojasro@343: other than the current tip.  For example, you might want to know what
jerojasro@343: your project looked like last Tuesday, or you could be looking through
jerojasro@343: changesets to see which one introduced a bug.  In cases like this, the
jerojasro@343: natural thing to do is update the working directory to the changeset
jerojasro@343: you're interested in, and then examine the files in the working
jerojasro@343: directory directly to see their contents as they werea when you
jerojasro@343: committed that changeset.  The effect of this is shown in
jerojasro@343: figure~\ref{fig:concepts:wdir-pre-branch}.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \begin{figure}[ht]
jerojasro@343:   \centering
jerojasro@343:   \grafix{wdir-pre-branch}
jerojasro@343:   \caption{The working directory, updated to an older changeset}
jerojasro@343:   \label{fig:concepts:wdir-pre-branch}
jerojasro@343: \end{figure}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: Having updated the working directory to an older changeset, what
jerojasro@343: happens if you make some changes, and then commit?  Mercurial behaves
jerojasro@343: in the same way as I outlined above.  The parents of the working
jerojasro@343: directory become the parents of the new changeset.  This new changeset
jerojasro@343: has no children, so it becomes the new tip.  And the repository now
jerojasro@343: contains two changesets that have no children; we call these
jerojasro@343: \emph{heads}.  You can see the structure that this creates in
jerojasro@343: figure~\ref{fig:concepts:wdir-branch}.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \begin{figure}[ht]
jerojasro@343:   \centering
jerojasro@343:   \grafix{wdir-branch}
jerojasro@343:   \caption{After a commit made while synced to an older changeset}
jerojasro@343:   \label{fig:concepts:wdir-branch}
jerojasro@343: \end{figure}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \begin{note}
jerojasro@343:   If you're new to Mercurial, you should keep in mind a common
jerojasro@343:   ``error'', which is to use the \hgcmd{pull} command without any
jerojasro@343:   options.  By default, the \hgcmd{pull} command \emph{does not}
jerojasro@343:   update the working directory, so you'll bring new changesets into
jerojasro@343:   your repository, but the working directory will stay synced at the
jerojasro@343:   same changeset as before the pull.  If you make some changes and
jerojasro@343:   commit afterwards, you'll thus create a new head, because your
jerojasro@343:   working directory isn't synced to whatever the current tip is.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343:   I put the word ``error'' in quotes because all that you need to do
jerojasro@343:   to rectify this situation is \hgcmd{merge}, then \hgcmd{commit}.  In
jerojasro@343:   other words, this almost never has negative consequences; it just
jerojasro@343:   surprises people.  I'll discuss other ways to avoid this behaviour,
jerojasro@343:   and why Mercurial behaves in this initially surprising way, later
jerojasro@343:   on.
jerojasro@343: \end{note}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \subsection{Merging heads}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: When you run the \hgcmd{merge} command, Mercurial leaves the first
jerojasro@343: parent of the working directory unchanged, and sets the second parent
jerojasro@343: to the changeset you're merging with, as shown in
jerojasro@343: figure~\ref{fig:concepts:wdir-merge}.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \begin{figure}[ht]
jerojasro@343:   \centering
jerojasro@343:   \grafix{wdir-merge}
jerojasro@343:   \caption{Merging two heads}
jerojasro@343:   \label{fig:concepts:wdir-merge}
jerojasro@343: \end{figure}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: Mercurial also has to modify the working directory, to merge the files
jerojasro@343: managed in the two changesets.  Simplified a little, the merging
jerojasro@343: process goes like this, for every file in the manifests of both
jerojasro@343: changesets.
jerojasro@343: \begin{itemize}
jerojasro@343: \item If neither changeset has modified a file, do nothing with that
jerojasro@343:   file.
jerojasro@343: \item If one changeset has modified a file, and the other hasn't,
jerojasro@343:   create the modified copy of the file in the working directory.
jerojasro@343: \item If one changeset has removed a file, and the other hasn't (or
jerojasro@343:   has also deleted it), delete the file from the working directory.
jerojasro@343: \item If one changeset has removed a file, but the other has modified
jerojasro@343:   the file, ask the user what to do: keep the modified file, or remove
jerojasro@343:   it?
jerojasro@343: \item If both changesets have modified a file, invoke an external
jerojasro@343:   merge program to choose the new contents for the merged file.  This
jerojasro@343:   may require input from the user.
jerojasro@343: \item If one changeset has modified a file, and the other has renamed
jerojasro@343:   or copied the file, make sure that the changes follow the new name
jerojasro@343:   of the file.
jerojasro@343: \end{itemize}
jerojasro@343: There are more details---merging has plenty of corner cases---but
jerojasro@343: these are the most common choices that are involved in a merge.  As
jerojasro@343: you can see, most cases are completely automatic, and indeed most
jerojasro@343: merges finish automatically, without requiring your input to resolve
jerojasro@343: any conflicts.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: When you're thinking about what happens when you commit after a merge,
jerojasro@343: once again the working directory is ``the changeset I'm about to
jerojasro@343: commit''.  After the \hgcmd{merge} command completes, the working
jerojasro@343: directory has two parents; these will become the parents of the new
jerojasro@343: changeset.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: Mercurial lets you perform multiple merges, but you must commit the
jerojasro@343: results of each individual merge as you go.  This is necessary because
jerojasro@343: Mercurial only tracks two parents for both revisions and the working
jerojasro@343: directory.  While it would be technically possible to merge multiple
jerojasro@343: changesets at once, the prospect of user confusion and making a
jerojasro@343: terrible mess of a merge immediately becomes overwhelming.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \section{Other interesting design features}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: In the sections above, I've tried to highlight some of the most
jerojasro@343: important aspects of Mercurial's design, to illustrate that it pays
jerojasro@343: careful attention to reliability and performance.  However, the
jerojasro@343: attention to detail doesn't stop there.  There are a number of other
jerojasro@343: aspects of Mercurial's construction that I personally find
jerojasro@343: interesting.  I'll detail a few of them here, separate from the ``big
jerojasro@343: ticket'' items above, so that if you're interested, you can gain a
jerojasro@343: better idea of the amount of thinking that goes into a well-designed
jerojasro@343: system.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \subsection{Clever compression}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: When appropriate, Mercurial will store both snapshots and deltas in
jerojasro@343: compressed form.  It does this by always \emph{trying to} compress a
jerojasro@343: snapshot or delta, but only storing the compressed version if it's
jerojasro@343: smaller than the uncompressed version.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: This means that Mercurial does ``the right thing'' when storing a file
jerojasro@343: whose native form is compressed, such as a \texttt{zip} archive or a
jerojasro@343: JPEG image.  When these types of files are compressed a second time,
jerojasro@343: the resulting file is usually bigger than the once-compressed form,
jerojasro@343: and so Mercurial will store the plain \texttt{zip} or JPEG.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: Deltas between revisions of a compressed file are usually larger than
jerojasro@343: snapshots of the file, and Mercurial again does ``the right thing'' in
jerojasro@343: these cases.  It finds that such a delta exceeds the threshold at
jerojasro@343: which it should store a complete snapshot of the file, so it stores
jerojasro@343: the snapshot, again saving space compared to a naive delta-only
jerojasro@343: approach.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \subsubsection{Network recompression}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: When storing revisions on disk, Mercurial uses the ``deflate''
jerojasro@343: compression algorithm (the same one used by the popular \texttt{zip}
jerojasro@343: archive format), which balances good speed with a respectable
jerojasro@343: compression ratio.  However, when transmitting revision data over a
jerojasro@343: network connection, Mercurial uncompresses the compressed revision
jerojasro@343: data.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: If the connection is over HTTP, Mercurial recompresses the entire
jerojasro@343: stream of data using a compression algorithm that gives a better
jerojasro@343: compression ratio (the Burrows-Wheeler algorithm from the widely used
jerojasro@343: \texttt{bzip2} compression package).  This combination of algorithm
jerojasro@343: and compression of the entire stream (instead of a revision at a time)
jerojasro@343: substantially reduces the number of bytes to be transferred, yielding
jerojasro@343: better network performance over almost all kinds of network.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: (If the connection is over \command{ssh}, Mercurial \emph{doesn't}
jerojasro@343: recompress the stream, because \command{ssh} can already do this
jerojasro@343: itself.)
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \subsection{Read/write ordering and atomicity}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: Appending to files isn't the whole story when it comes to guaranteeing
jerojasro@343: that a reader won't see a partial write.  If you recall
jerojasro@343: figure~\ref{fig:concepts:metadata}, revisions in the changelog point to
jerojasro@343: revisions in the manifest, and revisions in the manifest point to
jerojasro@343: revisions in filelogs.  This hierarchy is deliberate.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: A writer starts a transaction by writing filelog and manifest data,
jerojasro@343: and doesn't write any changelog data until those are finished.  A
jerojasro@343: reader starts by reading changelog data, then manifest data, followed
jerojasro@343: by filelog data.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: Since the writer has always finished writing filelog and manifest data
jerojasro@343: before it writes to the changelog, a reader will never read a pointer
jerojasro@343: to a partially written manifest revision from the changelog, and it will
jerojasro@343: never read a pointer to a partially written filelog revision from the
jerojasro@343: manifest.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \subsection{Concurrent access}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: The read/write ordering and atomicity guarantees mean that Mercurial
jerojasro@343: never needs to \emph{lock} a repository when it's reading data, even
jerojasro@343: if the repository is being written to while the read is occurring.
jerojasro@343: This has a big effect on scalability; you can have an arbitrary number
jerojasro@343: of Mercurial processes safely reading data from a repository safely
jerojasro@343: all at once, no matter whether it's being written to or not.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: The lockless nature of reading means that if you're sharing a
jerojasro@343: repository on a multi-user system, you don't need to grant other local
jerojasro@343: users permission to \emph{write} to your repository in order for them
jerojasro@343: to be able to clone it or pull changes from it; they only need
jerojasro@343: \emph{read} permission.  (This is \emph{not} a common feature among
jerojasro@343: revision control systems, so don't take it for granted!  Most require
jerojasro@343: readers to be able to lock a repository to access it safely, and this
jerojasro@343: requires write permission on at least one directory, which of course
jerojasro@343: makes for all kinds of nasty and annoying security and administrative
jerojasro@343: problems.)
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: Mercurial uses locks to ensure that only one process can write to a
jerojasro@343: repository at a time (the locking mechanism is safe even over
jerojasro@343: filesystems that are notoriously hostile to locking, such as NFS).  If
jerojasro@343: a repository is locked, a writer will wait for a while to retry if the
jerojasro@343: repository becomes unlocked, but if the repository remains locked for
jerojasro@343: too long, the process attempting to write will time out after a while.
jerojasro@343: This means that your daily automated scripts won't get stuck forever
jerojasro@343: and pile up if a system crashes unnoticed, for example.  (Yes, the
jerojasro@343: timeout is configurable, from zero to infinity.)
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \subsubsection{Safe dirstate access}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: As with revision data, Mercurial doesn't take a lock to read the
jerojasro@343: dirstate file; it does acquire a lock to write it.  To avoid the
jerojasro@343: possibility of reading a partially written copy of the dirstate file,
jerojasro@343: Mercurial writes to a file with a unique name in the same directory as
jerojasro@343: the dirstate file, then renames the temporary file atomically to
jerojasro@343: \filename{dirstate}.  The file named \filename{dirstate} is thus
jerojasro@343: guaranteed to be complete, not partially written.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \subsection{Avoiding seeks}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: Critical to Mercurial's performance is the avoidance of seeks of the
jerojasro@343: disk head, since any seek is far more expensive than even a
jerojasro@343: comparatively large read operation.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: This is why, for example, the dirstate is stored in a single file.  If
jerojasro@343: there were a dirstate file per directory that Mercurial tracked, the
jerojasro@343: disk would seek once per directory.  Instead, Mercurial reads the
jerojasro@343: entire single dirstate file in one step.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: Mercurial also uses a ``copy on write'' scheme when cloning a
jerojasro@343: repository on local storage.  Instead of copying every revlog file
jerojasro@343: from the old repository into the new repository, it makes a ``hard
jerojasro@343: link'', which is a shorthand way to say ``these two names point to the
jerojasro@343: same file''.  When Mercurial is about to write to one of a revlog's
jerojasro@343: files, it checks to see if the number of names pointing at the file is
jerojasro@343: greater than one.  If it is, more than one repository is using the
jerojasro@343: file, so Mercurial makes a new copy of the file that is private to
jerojasro@343: this repository.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: A few revision control developers have pointed out that this idea of
jerojasro@343: making a complete private copy of a file is not very efficient in its
jerojasro@343: use of storage.  While this is true, storage is cheap, and this method
jerojasro@343: gives the highest performance while deferring most book-keeping to the
jerojasro@343: operating system.  An alternative scheme would most likely reduce
jerojasro@343: performance and increase the complexity of the software, each of which
jerojasro@343: is much more important to the ``feel'' of day-to-day use.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: \subsection{Other contents of the dirstate}
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: Because Mercurial doesn't force you to tell it when you're modifying a
jerojasro@343: file, it uses the dirstate to store some extra information so it can
jerojasro@343: determine efficiently whether you have modified a file.  For each file
jerojasro@343: in the working directory, it stores the time that it last modified the
jerojasro@343: file itself, and the size of the file at that time.  
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: When you explicitly \hgcmd{add}, \hgcmd{remove}, \hgcmd{rename} or
jerojasro@343: \hgcmd{copy} files, Mercurial updates the dirstate so that it knows
jerojasro@343: what to do with those files when you commit.
jerojasro@343: 
jerojasro@343: When Mercurial is checking the states of files in the working
jerojasro@343: directory, it first checks a file's modification time.  If that has
jerojasro@343: not changed, the file must not have been modified.  If the file's size
jerojasro@343: has changed, the file must have been modified.  If the modification
jerojasro@343: time has changed, but the size has not, only then does Mercurial need
jerojasro@343: to read the actual contents of the file to see if they've changed.
jerojasro@343: Storing these few extra pieces of information dramatically reduces the
jerojasro@343: amount of data that Mercurial needs to read, which yields large
jerojasro@343: performance improvements compared to other revision control systems.
jerojasro@343: 
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